Turkey / Arabia: Two philosophers debating (to the right, possibly, Abu Yusuf al Kindi), 'The best rulings and the most precious sayings of Al-Mubashshir', 13th century CE

Philosophers from the Middle Ages include the Christian philosophers Augustine of Hippo, Boethius, Anselm, Gilbert of Poitiers, Peter Abelard, Roger Bacon, Bonaventure, Thomas Aquinas, Duns Scotus, William of Ockham and Jean Buridan.

The Jewish philosophers include Maimonides and Gersonides; and the Muslim philosophers Alkindus, Alfarabi, Alhazen, Avicenna, Algazel, Avempace, Abubacer, Ibn Khaldun, and Averroes.

Some authorities suggest that one of the figures in this miniature represents Al-Kindi, or Abu Yusuf Yaʻqub ibn Ishaq as-Ṣabbaḥ al-Kindi (c. 801–873 CE), known as 'the Philosopher of the Arabs', a Muslim Arab philosopher, polymath, mathematician, physician and musician. Al-Kindi was the first of the Muslim peripatetic philosophers, and is unanimously hailed as the 'father of Islamic or Arabic philosophy' for his synthesis, adaptation and promotion of Greek and Hellenistic philosophy in the Muslim world.

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